Effect of Hormones on Aggressive Behaviour

Effect of Hormones on Aggressive Behaviour The role of hormones in mediating aggressive behaviour How hormones can trigger and influence aggression in animals and humans has interested many researchers in the last six decades (Brooks-Gunn, Graber, Paikoff, 1994). Scientists realised soon that aggressive behaviours has to be always set in a larger context. The larger context can never be neglected while investigating complex human behaviours. This applies especially when considering the hormonal contributions to aggressive behaviour since far more than one link seems to exist between hormones and aggression. For instance, the hormonal control of parental, sexual and reproductive behaviour crucially determines aggression in both humans and animals. Parents of many animal species are increasingly aggressive while experiencing hormonal changes, for example, during lactation and parturition as they strive to defend their offspring from enemies (Beach, 1979). The aim of this paper is to evaluate the study on hormones and aggressive behaviour in the evolutionary context. Nonetheless it is not intended to conceptualise this evolutionary context without relation to other domains such as the social or cognitive one as these domains are inextricably linked. â€Å"A developmental perspective of aggression thus is based on the assumption that aggressive behavior is multidetermined and dynamic over the life span, and a product of a complex continuous interaction of the multiple psycho-bio-social changes.† (Ramirez, 2003; p.622). Aggression The fact that multiple modulators for aggression seem to exist makes it more difficult to reach conclusions. An additional problem is that the usage of the word aggression is too broad and there is yet not consensus over how it can be actually defined (Kavoussi, Armstead, Coccaro, 1997). Aggression has been predominantly related to an emotional state that individuals frequently describe as involving a strong drive to inflict harm and emotions of disregard and hate. However, overt aggression comes, in contrast to the described inner feeling of hate, in different forms. Predatory aggression, for instance, refers to the feeding behaviour of animals and is represented by attacks directed at natural prey. It has been demonstrated that the majority of vertebrates display aggression between two males of the same species while only some animals display maternal aggression. Fear-induced aggression, on the other hand, appears when an animal is anxious and/or incapable to escape from a perceiv ed dangerous situation. Irritable aggression, however, comes frequently close to uncontrollable rage and is triggered by immense pain or frustration (Rosenzweig, Breedlove, Reiman, 2002). Nelson (1995) reported how male sex hormones play a significant role in various forms of aggressive behaviour like for example in within-species social interactions and encounters. As a consequence, aggressive behaviour between males increases on the verge to sexual maturity. Experiments with male mice have demonstrated that their aggressiveness levels rise significantly during puberty while immature mice display more violent behaviours against each other when they are treated with androgens (McKinney Desjardins, 1973). Puberty and Hormonal Change Given the dramatic changes that occur in endocrine physiology at puberty, it is not surprising that increases in testosterone are hypothesized to be related to increases in aggression. This explains why testosterone has been the most investigated hormone in its research. The wealth of evidence supporting the ability of testosterone to facilitate aggressive behaviour in a broad number of mammal species has led to wonder about its potential role in human aggression. Wingfield and colleagues (1987) were among those researches who successfully demonstrated that the amount of displayed aggression in many species is related to the amount of seasonal testosterone change. Yet experiments with youths experiencing puberty yielded equivocal results. Book and collaborators (2001) for instance conducted a meta-analysis on 45 independent studies and came to the conclusion that the mean weighted correlation of these studies was only weakly positive (r = 0.14). This finding was congruent with Archer’s (1991) meta-analyses as he had also found rather marginally significant positive relationships between testosterone levels in humans and aggression. Experiments investigating the on the effects of castration on subjects illustrated more convincingly how inextricably aggressive behaviour is linked to hormones. Conclusively, castrated males displayed less aggressive behaviour due to the decreased androgen production. If, in turn, testosterone is injected into these castrated species one can again observe an increase in inter-male violent behaviour. Females are less often studies by researchers with regard to hormonal affects on aggression. This is due to the fact that males engage significantly more often in aggressive behaviour than females (e.g. number of male murderers is five times higher in the United States). Thus the predominant viewpoint among scientists is that males of most species are the more aggressive and violent sex. Consistently, recent research has found more support for a link between androgens and aggressive affect for boys entering puberty (Olweus et al., 1988) but less strong associations for girls (Paikoff Br ooks-Gunn, 1990). Nevertheless some studies found that in some species like Hamsters the female sex is more aggressive. However, this was not anymore the case when the female Hamsters entered the estrus stage. As a matter of fact, not all studies have supported the notion that the amount of hormones, especially androgens, is negatively associated to aggression levels. Ehrenkranz and colleagues (1974) for example demonstrated that testosterone levels of humans were positively related to aggressiveness while Kreuz and Rose (1972) could not find a significant correlation between levels of testosterone and aggressiveness in prisoners. Nonetheless Dabbs and Morris (1990) maintained with the help of their study on military veterans that testosterone levels can be linked at least to violent antisocial behaviour. More recently Dabbs and Hargrove (1997) revealed that high testosterone levels are a remarkable characteristic and predictor of female prisoners who are convicted of self-initiated violent crimes. At least two confounding variables exist Research has also demonstrated the existence of at least two confounding variable which have a significant influence on the relationship between hormones and aggressive behaviour. Bernstein and Gordon (1971) showed that both monkeys and mice who come out as winners of an aggressive interaction display increased testosterone levels whereas the losers experience a decrease in androgens. Consequently, the winners become more aggressive while the losers are less prone to exhibiting aggressive behaviour towards their own and other species. One could conclude that it was more a consequence rather than a cause that the more aggressive prisoners in Dabbs and Hargroves (1997) experiment had higher testosterone levels. Surprisingly not only the winners of aggressive encounters but also the triumphant of sport competitions experience observable increases in their testosterone levels. It goes further that this increase is not only experienced by those who actively participate and win in the spor ting event but is even experienced by those who support and cheer up the winning side or individual (Bernhardt, 1997). As even chess players display after having lost chess matches lower levels and after having won higher levels of testosterone it was concluded that another confounding variable mediates between aggression and testosterone because chess players are hardly aggressive in their normal behaviour. Regardless of these confounding variables sexual assaulters, aggressors and criminals have been often castrated in the past in order to decrease both their sex and aggression drives. The results of these studies reported that criminals were less susceptible to aggressive behaviour after having experienced a decrease in sex hormones induced by their castration (Brain, 1994). Nowadays, however, ethical issues and concerns have become increasingly important and thus it is debatable and questionable whether these kind of forced surgical interventions are ethically justifiable and tenable. Serotonin and Aggressive Behaviour The synaptic transmitter serotonin seems to have as well a profound impact on aggressive behaviour in both humans and animals. In contrast to testosterone, however, a negative association between aggression and brain serotonin activity has been reported in past studies. Higley and collaborators (1992), for instance, investigated the activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin in around 30 monkeys in an observational study. The researchers ranked the monkeys according to their aggressive activities on the island where they were freely living and compared their ranks with the amount of serotonin brain activity. Their results demonstrated that serotonin levels are negatively correlated with aggression. Virkkunen and Linnoila (1993) supported these findings with their own study. They showed that individuals who consume alcohol excessively have comparatively lower serotonin metabolites concentrations (e.g. HIAA concentrations) in their cerebrospinal fluid. These applied also to animal tort uring children (Kruesi, 1979) and due to aggressive behaviour expelled American Marines (Brown et al., 1979). As a matter of fact, serotonin levels are affected by environmental context and stimuli. Dominant and high ranking primates for example who stand on the top of the hierarchical social status ladder display greater serotonin levels than primates who rank lower in the pecking order. If however the higher ranked primates loses his social status he analogously experiences a decrease in serotonin levels. Testosterone and Aggressive Behaviour Schaal and colleagues (1996) investigated more recently the association between physical violence and social dominance of pubescent male youths and their respective testosterone levels. It was shown that less socially dominant youths had lower levels of testosterone in comparison to socially more dominant peers who possess concurrently bigger amounts of testosterone amounts. Nevertheless, this finding could not be repeated with aggression levels as those pubescent youths who were perceived as more aggressively behaving had significantly lower testosterone concentrations than those males who had a low history of being physically aggressive and violent. Thus it was concluded that testosterone was related not so much to antisocial characteristics than to experienced social status. In other words, those who successfully achieve higher social dominance statuses experience an increase in testosterone while those who fail to gain high social status face a reduction in their testosterone pro duction. Experiments with younger children (e.g. 5-year-olds) it was found that boys with higher testosterone concentrations were more playfully aggressive in social interactions. However, this relationship could neither be established with girls nor in play contexts (Ahedo et al., 2002). This again implies that testosterone levels are not solely a modulator of aggressive behaviour but rather a mediator of any kind of social behaviour. Additionally, Ahedo and collaborators study demonstrated that sex differences in behaviour establish themselves already very early on in life. In another study (van Goozen et al., 1998) the androstenedione, testosterone, dehdroepiandrostenedione (DHEA) levels in prepubescent boys exhibiting antisocial conduct disorders was examined. Van Goozen and colleagues results revealed that antisocial conduct disordered infants’ aggressiveness was not significantly relatable to testosterone. However, the more antisocially behaving boys had significantly higher than average androstenedione levels and modestly higher than average DHEAS levels. Researchers like Ramirez (2003) believed that studies such as these have the power to shadow doubt on the validity of testosterone as a biological control system for aggressive behaviour in postnatal life. Even later on in life testosterone levels seem only to represent the consequence rather than a cause of aggression as testosterone does not immediately lead people to be physically aggressive but their aggression is solely a response to cognitive and social stimuli and triggers (Brain Su sman, 1996). Studies on observed changes in concentration levels of testosterone and cortisol during aggressive behaviour and social stress serve as support for those researchers maintaining that both the evolutionary and social contexts and experiences have an essential impact on hormonal levels in humans. Thus â€Å"gonadal hormones, besides being only one of the multiple processes -biological, social, and cognitive, to influence aggression in children and adolescents, might also be a signal of aggression, or even more precisely perhaps, of social success.† (Ramirez, 2003; p. 630). These findings about serotonin and testosterone are according to Ramirez (2003) of utmost importance as they demonstrate that that experiences made in life can alter both brain chemistry and hormonal production in fundamental ways. Thus it can be noted that social context and hormonal activities in the body and brain are inextricably linked. Past researches on abnormal (van Goozen et al., 2000) and normal (Nottelmann et al., 1987; Inoff-Germain et al., 1988) male and female children have revealed univocal associations between high hormone levels of adrenal origin like androstenedione or dehydroepiandrostenedione sulphate and aggression together with diverse other negative attributes such as antisocial behaviour, rebelliousness and anger. Furthermore, the fact that androstenedione which is a prevalent producer of androgens is linked to anger in females suggests that adrenal and not gonadal originated androgens play a fundamental part in determining the aggressive behaviour of the female sex. In addition to that, it has been found that serotonin is not the sole mediator of aggression but also noradrenergic, neuropeptides and GABA systems have been demonstrated to have an impact on aggressive behaviour. Additionally, estrogens, gonadotrophins, and prolactine have been identified as minor modulators. Thus, genetic and pharma cological experts have essentially extended the number of relevant hormones and neurotransmitters in the last couple of years (Nelson Chiavegatto, 2001). In conclusion, all the above findings fortify and support the currently predominant notion that aggression is not mediated by only one factor but by a network of many interplaying variables. References Ahedo, L., Cardas, J., Aizpiroz, A., Brain, P. F., Sanchez-Martin, J. R. (2002). Social behavior in male and female 5-year olds and its relation to salivary testosterone levels. The developmental origins of aggressive behavior (p. 53). Montreal: ISRA. Archer, J. (1991). The influence of testosterone on human aggression. British Journal of Psychology, 82, 1–28. Beach, F.A. (1979). Aggressive Behavior. Hormones and Aggression, 5(3), 313-316. Bernhardt, P. C. (1997). Influences of serotonin and testosterone in aggression and dominance: convergence with social psychology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(6), 44-48. Bernstein, I. S., and Gordon, T. P. (1974). The function of aggression in primate societies. American Scientist, 62, 304-311. Book, A. S., Starzyk, K. B., Quinsey, V. L. (2001). The relationship between testosterone and aggression: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6(6), 579–599. Brain, P. 1994. Hormonal aspects of aggression and violence. In A. Reiss, Jr., K. Miczek, and J. Roth (Eds.), Understanding and Preventing Violence, Volume 2., pp. 173-244 Washington DC: National Academy Press. Brain, P. F., Susman, E. J. (1996). Hormonal aspects of antisocial behavior and violence. In D. M. Stoff, J. Maser, J. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior ( pp. 314–323). Hillsdale: Laurence Erlbaum. Brooks-Gunn, J. Graber, J.A., Paikoff R.L. (1994). Studying links between hormones and negative affect: models and measures. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4(4), 469-486. Brown, G. L., Goodwin, F. K., Ballenger, J. C., Goyer, P. F., et al. (1979). Aggression in humans correlates with cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites. Psychiatry Research, 1, 131-139. Dabbs, J. M., Jr., and Hargrove, M. F. (1997). Age, testosterone, and behaviour among female prison inmates. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 477-480. Dabbs, J. M., Jr., and Morris, R. (1990). Testosterone, social class and antisocial behavior in a sample of 4.462 men. Psychological Science, 1(3), 209-211. Ehrenkranz, J., Bliss, E., and Sheard, M. H. (1974). Plasma testosterone: correlation with aggressive behaviour and social dominance in man. Psychosomatic Medicine, 36, 469-475. Higley, J. D., Mehlman, P. T., Taub, D. M., Higley, S. B., et al. (1992). Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine and adrenal correlates of aggression in free-ranging rhesus monkey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 436-441. Kavoussi, R., Armstead, P., Coccaro, E. (1997). The neurobiology of impulsive aggression. Psychiatry Clinic North America, 20(2), 395–403. Kreuz, L. E., Rose, R. M. (1972). Assessment of aggressive behaviour and plasma testosterone in a young criminal population. Psychosomatic Medicine, 34, 321-332. Kruesi, M. J. (1979). Cruelty to animals and CSF 5HIAA. Psychiatry Research, 28, 115-116. Inoff-Germain, G. E., Arnold, G. S., Nottelmann, E. D., Susman, E. J., Cutler, G. B., Chrousos, G. P. (1988). Relations between hormone levels and observational measures of aggressive behavior of early adolescents in family interactions. Developmental Psychology, 24, 129–139. McKinney, T.D., and Desjardins, C. (1973). Postnatal development of the testis, fighting behaviour, and fertility in house mice. Biology of reproduction, 9, 279-294. Nelson, R. J. (1995). Introduction to behavioural endocrinology. Sunderland MA: Sinauer Associates. Nelson, R. J., Chiavegatto, S. (2001). Molecular basis of aggression. Trends in Neurosciences, 24(12), 713–719. Nottelmann, E. D., Susman, E. J., Dorn, L. D., et al. (1987). Developmental processes in American early adolescents: Relationships between adolescent adjustment problems and chronological pubertal stage and puberty-related serum hormone levels. Journal of Pediatrics, 110, 473–480. Olweus, D., Mattsson, A., Schalling, D., Low, H. (1988). Circulating testosterone levels and aggression in adolescent males: a casual analysis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 50, 261-271. Paikoff, R.L., Brooks-Gunn, J., (1990). Associations between pubertal hormones and behavioural and affective expression. In C.S. Holmes (Ed.), Psychoneuroendoctrinology: brain, behaviour, and hormonal interactions (pp. 205-226). New York: Springer-Verlag. Ramirez, J.M. (2003). Hormones and aggression in childhood and adolescence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8, 621–644 Rosenzweig, M.R., Breedlove, S.M., Leiman, A.L. (2002). Biological Psychology. MA: Sinauer Associates. Schaal, B., Tremblay, R. E., Soussignan, R., Susman, E. J. (1996). Male testosterone linked to high social dominance but low physical aggression in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(10), 1322–1330. van Goozen, S. H., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Gispen-de Wied, C., Wiegant, V. M., van Engeland, H. (1998). Salivary cortisol and cardiovascular activity during stress in oppositional-defiant disorder boys and normal controls. Biological Psychiatry, 43(7), 531–539. van Goozen, S. H., van den Ban, E., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Thijssen, J. H., van Engeland, H. (2000). Increased adrenal androgen functioning in children with oppositional defiant disorder: A comparison with psychiatric and normal controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,  39(11), 1446–1451. Virkkunen, M., and Linnoila, M. (1993). Brain serotonin, type II alcoholism and impulsive violence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 11, 163-169. Wingfield, J. C., Ball, G. F., Dufty, A. M., Hegner, R. E., et al. (1987). Testosterone and aggression in birds. American Scientist, 75, 602-608.

Marxist explanations of social class inequalities Essay

In society there are many different factors which divide us and result in social inequality. In this essay, I will be covering social class. Karl Marx believed that in society, there are two major social classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariats. The bourgeoisie are basically the upper class; in order for you to be classed as a part of them you must own the means of production such as factories etc. In order for these factories to run, they would need workers, which is where the proletariats come in. The proletariat only owns their labour force which they sell in order for a wage. Karl Marx stated that the proletariats are exploited through low pay and poor work conditions, but due to capitalism, we deal with it as were tied down to the economy. Conflict theory coined by Karl Marx suggests that suggested that social order is maintained by domination and power opposed to a shared consensus among society. This inequality is derived from social and political aspects established in s ociety. Marxists believe that social in equalities are implemented by the bourgeoisie in order to maintain a disturbance among the proletariats in order to keep them distracted from existing economic issues. A way they do this through the media. They distract the public with celebrity’s lavish lifestyles and people are tied to the economy in an attempt to imitate them. Factualists would counter this perspective claiming that social inequalities benefit society positively. They believe that it works as an incentive for individuals to work harder and achieve their maximum potential. The education system also ensures that the most suitable are picked out for the job. It also ensures that social order is maintained as people would accept their position as they had an equal chance to everyone else. Factualists also believe that the individuals at the bottom of the fragmented social scale are needed as some has to do the less attractive jobs. The New Right have a very traditional view of so ciety. They believe that women should embrace the assigned expressive role and males should be the breadwinner in the family. They have old fashioned views and are often of the Christian religion despite recent secularisation rates. The New Right are one of the few perspectives which with holds a cultural argument. They believe that failure in society is a result of the individual’s actions and choices. They believe that all the wealth within society slowly â€Å"Trickles† down to the rest of society. They believe that  business entrepreneurs create jobs for the rest of society by setting up business such as industries and factories which then create jobs; hence the wealth being distributed throughout society. Although inequalities exist and are relevant in the contemporary UK, it’s very rare that there are cases of absolute poverty due to free services provided by the government such as health care and education which then give individuals more equal life chances. Capitalism has gotten rid of many working class jobs throughout the UK such as factory jobs and mining, because of this, these working class jobs have been replaced with many middle class jobs. This has given people a better standard of living and made them more aspirational for the future. Within the past 50 years, the middle class has massively grown and become the largest social class within the UK. There are also exceptionally much more university graduates. Karl Marx was strongly against the concept of capitalism. He disliked the fact that there was income inequality. He pushed for a communist society and equality. He predicted that this would happen in the future as capitalism was unstable and was inevitable to fall. He stated that we would all achieve a class conscience and be aware of the fact that we are being exploited, realising our true value. He predicted we would all revolt against the system. The fact that we all still live in a capitalist society proves he was wrong. Sociologists such as weber countered this prediction and believed that the proletariats would be too distracted with domestic problems amongst each other forcing them to divide as opposed to sticking together.

10 Stunning Red and Black Garden Bugs

Virtues Of Filial Piety And Loyalty - 859 Words

Other important virtues include Filial Piety (Ã¥ ­  Xiao) and Loyalty (Ã¥ ¿   Zhong). Filial Piety is one of the most important virtues in the discussion of rituals in Confucianism. For example, Ancestor worship is a huge part of the Confucianism practices and rituals. Confucius did acknowledge the existence of spirit and the traditional belief about ghost. Therefore, he believed that people should be respectful to their parents even after their death and that worshiping ancestors is manifesting the virtue of filial piety. To worship the ancestors, people prepare the best food, arrange them in the order provided by the sacred text and burn the incense. Then, they believed that the ancestors would come eat the food and bless them if pleased. Also, people would go to their ancestor’s tomb to sweep it and take care of it. This tradition of respecting one’s parents is similar to the Bible’s teaching in Ephesian 6:1-3 where it says one who respect and obey the paren ts will be blessed. The sacred texts provide detailed guidance on religious practices. Similar to the Old Testament, the texts prescribed certain behaviors that need to be done. However, Confucius also emphasized the significance of one’s heart and attitude in doing so as things done without the genuine feeling are useless. Jesus also emphasized the truthful heart in loving God as He said, â€Å"Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.† The festivals of Confucianism are QufuShow MoreRelated Filial Piety’s Role in Ancient China Essay2270 Words   |  10 PagesIn the 18th century, China was influenced by various teachings of philosophers and beliefs that the society had placed emphasis on. Filial piety (xiao) was a major practice around this period when it was strongly carried inside and outside the household. 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Essay On The Election - 823 Words

It was December 2018. The people of Israel and Palestine grew weary with the violence. Palestinians regained the land they once possessed in the West Bank and Gaza. Negotiation was tough, but it is to most people’s delight that 2 years later the violence has slowly began to terminate. The next question is how Israel moves on from all the violence, and chaos. The upcoming elections become a key factor in Israel’s future condition. 2020 elections have begun, the Unified Constitution for Israel (UCI) party has officially won the national elections, with a majority of it’s members in the Knesset. This has never occurred in Israel history. UCI’s entire campaign was in support of Jewish Law. The Jewish community has a strong stance on personal†¦show more content†¦Many democratic nations use proportional representation like: Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Denmark. The people vote for a representative and whoever gets the highest amount of votes gets t he most seats in the Knesset. 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Cover Letter Free Essays

Cover Letter Veselina Anatolieva Ignatova 44 Paisii Hilendarski str. Kneja, Pleven, Bulgaria 5835 November 2, 2010 Mr. Viktor Georgiev, HR Manager Griffid Hotels Club 13 Rose str. We will write a custom essay sample on Cover Letter or any similar topic only for you Order Now , Golden Sands Dear Mr. Georgiev: Please accept this letter as an expression of interest in the position of Front Office Manager. I have enclosed a copy of my resume for your review. I am familiar with the requirements for success in the Managers profession and I believe I possess the right combination of organizational, management and language skills.My current position is also Front Office Manager in Marina Palace Hotel and my main responsibility is to coordinate the team of the receptionists, organize them and follow the reward and recognition scale in order to motivate my team. My experience here has provided me the opportunity to work in a high-pressure, team environment, where it is essential to be able to work closely with my colleagues and guests of the hotel in order to deliver good quality of service.As a person working for so long in the hotel service industry I have never lost my patience with the people around me, never been arrogant or with bad manners. I’m responsible for my duties, taking the lead when necessary, communicative, empowering my team and always with good sense of humor. Than k you for your time and consideration. I would welcome the opportunity to personally discuss my potential contributions to your company with you. Please telephone me at after 5. 00 p. m. to suggest a time that we may meet. I look forward to your reply. Sincerely, Veselina Ignatova How to cite Cover Letter, Papers Cover Letter Free Essays How to Write a Cover Letter What Should Your Cover Letter Do For You? It should answer the question – Why should I hire you? It should grab the employers’ attention and point out why you, above all other applicants, should be contacted for a personal interview. The resume should never travel alone. Each time you submit your resume to an employer, you should enclose a cover letter that explains why you are submitting the resume. We will write a custom essay sample on Cover Letter or any similar topic only for you Order Now A cover letter is critical to creating interest in your candidacy, even for an internship or volunteer opportunity. The cover letter is your â€Å"sales pitch†. It gives you the opportunity to draw an employer’s attention to the skills and experience outlined in your resume. You can expand on certain courses or job responsibilities that particularly match the position for which to be considered. It also gives you a chance to highlight special achievements that might otherwise go overlooked. In summarizing your qualifications, highlight your most appropriate skills or background in relation to a particular position without simply reiterating the information on your resume. Refer the reader to your enclosed resume for further elaboration your past accomplishments. Be direct and brief. Structure your cover letter with three sections: FIRST PARAGRAPH: This is the â€Å"why I’m writing to you† paragraph which immediately tells the employer the position you want to be considered for. This is short – usually 2-3 sentences. Points to cover: Why you are writing and which position you are applying for. ? How you heard about the position is irrelevant unless it is a mutual contact or recruiting program. Do not write, â€Å"I learned of this opportunity through the Career Services Office. ? Show from your research why you are interested in this position or organization. The goal is to make a connection – do this briefly and specifically or leave it out; sweeping statements will not work. SECOND PARAGRAPH: This is the â€Å"why I’m qualified† paragraph. Highlight some of your most relevant experiences and qualities as the y relate to the position for which you are applying. Choose 2 – 3 points you want to make about Specific experiences/accomplishments or about general qualities you have exhibited, and provide Specific examples to support those points. This paragraph will change according to the job/employer for which you are applying. This is usually the longest paragraph of the letter. You may break this paragraph into two if it looks too lengthy or if your points work best in separate paragraphs. Points to ponder: ? ? The first sentence should be a hard-hitting opener. It is a quick introduction, which is accomplishment-oriented and directed at the skills and qualifications needed for the job/industry. The body of the paragraph should provide evidence to back up what you’ve just claimed. Cite specific jobs/internships/activities/projects and accomplishments associated with those experiences. Use your resume to come up with some specifics, but NEVER reiterate passages from your resume word for word. Discuss why what you did is to the employer- relate the facts to the job. Strong examples are important! The final sentence is a summary of what you’ve discussed above. It’s a good idea to mention the position title and company name to bring the reader back to the specific job in question. ? FINAL PARAGRAPH: This is a short 2-4 sentences paragraph. You should refer to the enclosed resume, request an interview and let the reader know what will happen next (Contact them within specific period of time unless it is a recruiting program). It is vital that you thank the reader for his/her time and consideration. Cover Letter Rules 1. Address to a specific name and title. If you are uncertain who to address, look in the library reference materials or call the company and ask the receptionist for the appropriate name and title. To gather this information, tell the receptionist; â€Å"I am sending some important papers to the head of the Department. However, I’m not sure I have the correct name and address. Could you please tell me to whom I should address these documents? † Writing style should be direct, powerful and error free. Edit to eliminate extraneous words and to check grammar, spelling and punctuation. In addition to stating your purpose, the letter tells the reader how well you communicate. The cover letter should be no more than one page. It should follow good business format. Do not overwhelm the reader with a lengthy cover letter or excessive repetition of the resume content. Keep the letter short and to the point. Three or four paragraphs will suffice: Paragraph 1: State your interest and purpose. Paragraph 2 ( 3): Highlight your resume by stressing what you will do for the employer. Paragraph 3: Request an interview and, if possible, indicate that you will call to discuss potential opportunities. 5. Use appropriate language. Repeat terms that the employer uses, without plagiarizing the job description or quoting from the resume. Avoid jargon and the passive voice. Use action verbs and the active voice. Do not try to be cute or too aggressive. Be employer focused – tell the employer what you have to offer, not what you hope to gain from them or the position. Always be positive by stressing your base accomplishments and skills as well as your future value. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. Be sure to keep copies of all correspondence. It is possible that you will need to refer to it in the future . Sample Cover Letter for an Internship (courtesy of about. com) Your Name 111 Main Street Reading, MA 01867 (781) 555 -5555 youremail@yahoo. com Date Name Job Title Company Street City, State Zip Dear Ms. LastName: I am interested in applying for the scientific research summer internship position that was listed through the Name University Career Services Office. I have had a great deal of laboratory experience in chemistry, biology, and geology, both indoors and in the field. In the lab, I have performed chemical reactions and I am currently using microscopes to observe many specimens. In environmental field studies, I have conducted outdoor labs to assess water chemistry. Last summer, I worked as conservation assistant at Clumber National Park. I am seeking to complement this outdoor experience with a esearch internship in order to acquire the background necessary for a future career in scientific research. I believe that I would an asset to your program. This internship would provide me with the ideal opportunity to assist at your organization and to expand my research skills. I will call next week to see if you agree that my qualifications seem to be a match for the position. If s o, I hope to schedule an interview at a mutually convenient time. I look forward to speaking with you. Thank you for your consideration. Sincerely, Signature FirstName LastName This is to be used as a REFERENCE ONLY. PLEASE DO NOT COPY EXACT STATEMENTS for your letter. Every cover letter must be tailored to the job for which you are applying! Sample Cover for a Volunteer Opportunity (courtesy of UMASS Amherst) Your Name 111 Main Street Reading, MA 01867 (781) 555 -5555 youremail@yahoo. com August 9, 2012 Person’s Name Volunteer Coordinator Massachusetts Community Water Watch 44 Winter Street Boston, MA 02108 Dear Ms. X: This letter is to apply as a volunteer with Massachusetts Community Water Watch found through the Office of Community Service Learning at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. I am available to intern from September 1st 2012 to May 16th 2013. I am a first year student interested in pursuing a career in the field of biology. Through my coursework at the University, I continue to master the art and science of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data. I have strengthened my organizational skills through my lab courses and have developed specialized skills in using Excel. With my experience as a camp counselor, I am confident in interacting with and presenting educational topics to a young audience. Specifically, I was assigned by my supervisor to serve the role of Head Counselor. Through this role, I was able to coordinate and collaborate with other counselors and share ideas on fun interactive activities for campers. I look forward to utilizing my organizational and leadership skills in addition to my interest in biology to this internship. Thank you for your time and consideration. Sincerely, Your Name Enclosure: resume This is to be used as a REFERENCE ONLY. PLEASE DO NOT COPY EXACT STATEMENTS for your letter. Every cover letter must be tailored to the job for which you are applying! How to cite Cover Letter, Papers Cover Letter Free Essays Dear Hiring Manager, I have enclosed my resume. I am currently enrolled in City University of New York majoring in Education concentrated in Early Childhood. I have over 5 years of experience working in an educational environment with children between the ages 2 and 5. We will write a custom essay sample on Cover Letter or any similar topic only for you Order Now While in Middle School, I volunteered at an after work program tutoring my peers in key curriculum courses needed to pass State Testing. Once in high school I nurtured my passion for helping others strive to be the best. I was hired at Antioch Daycare Academy as a Part Time Instructor. As an instructor I was responsible for a class of 20 students between the ages of 2 and 4. I was required to complete a daily curriculum with my students that included the fundamentals needed in order to advance to Pre- K. I held monthly meetings with my student’s parents to discuss the growth, strengths and weakness of each student. My experiences in the classroom and work place have taught me how to effectively assess the short and long-term goals of children, and establish mutually agreed on methods to meet their needs. Throughout my years at Antioch, I was noticed and promoted to the positioned as Director’s Assistant, where I was able to strengthen my teaching and leadership abilities. I have shown to successfully work as part of an interdisciplinary team, collaborating with diverse professionals to provide a holistic approach to care. I have volunteered at daycare centers and outreach teen programs, emphasizing the importance of an education and the limitless opportunities it allows. In addition to my academic success and work experience, I have learned to not only organize my time effectively, but also use my experiences to spread awareness and educate others. In addition to working, I recruited members of my community and signatures of over 100 parents, which qualified Antioch as a potential UPK grant recipient. After several proposals, budgeting plans and curriculum outlines, we were awarded the full amount for UPK. My volunteer work, academic courses and work experience makes me a well-rounded candidate for the position was as a Family worker. I will bring new innovative ideas and proposals to further develop the classroom. Our mission is intertwined, to provide a safe and academically enriching program for children. I am currently up to date and certified CPR and First Aid, Anti-Bully and I have clearance from the Department of Health and the Department of Education. My salary requirement is negotiable based on the job responsibilities and total compensation package. Thank You, How to cite Cover Letter, Papers

Operational And Functional Requirements Of Different Conferences

Question: Discuss about the Spatial Operational And Functional Requirements Of Different Sized Conferences. Answer: Introduction The modern conference industry originated due to the religious and political congresses and conferences that held in the early centuries. Later it was followed by the business conferences and meetings. Within this industry, several people from all over the world come together, therefore this industry has the provision of creating a new market on a global scale through the conferences, exhibitions, meetings and other corporate events. These events are mostly of three kinds, small sized conferences with the forums and workshops, medium sized conferences with different session throughout the day and the international conferences which continue for several days (Rogers 2013). Within this industry, there are three kinds of customers of these events, government, private associations and corporate. The corporate customers hire the event managers to organize the medium or large sized conferences, however, most of such events are sponsored by the employers themselves and it contributes to cre ate revenue for the stakeholders attending such conferences. On the other hand, the private associations tend to hire the event managers for the small or medium sized conferences where they provide service for a selected group (Pahl and Beitz 2013). The event managers are required to understand the specifications of different clients. This is very much significant for the EMCs or the Event Management Companies and he Professional Conference Organizers or the PCOs. This essay will explore and discuss the spatial, operational and functional requirements of small, medium and large sized conferences. Small Sized Conference In the small conferences, there are around 100-200 guests, therefore the operational requirements involve arranging a venue to cater such people. There should be chairs and tables, different room for delegates and the conference room. There should be napery for all the rooms which are allotted to the delegates and other guests. The lighting and sound system should be available in the conference room and minimum of one technician should be present if there is any unusual and unplanned flaw in the system. The microphones and lapels should be function in the conference rooms as well. All the rooms should function properly, especially the heating and cooling functions. It should also cope-up with the number of guests who are coming for the conference. Mostly for the small conferences, specially, a small hotel in the city is chosen. The location should be a capital city which can offer a good communication system for the guests and there are ample chances for accommodation for the guests (Jones 2014). These factors should be considered to be most significant while choosing the venue for the conference. There should also be sufficient communication with the hotel owners so that they are well-aware if there is any change in the schedule or in the guest list. The management who are organizing the event, they should discuss the entire event beforehand with the hotel management in order to avoid any communication. For the conference, there should be a big banquet room with a podium, stage and microphones. If there are workshop sessions along with the conference, the there should be separate halls with the minimum capacity of 30-50 guests. According to Rogers (2013) the environment of the conference and the workshop rooms contribute to the energy and exchange of information of all the participants. Therefore, all the rooms should be properly maintained and well functioned. The food should be available whenever it is required, especially the morning and evening beverages s hould be served on time. The conference hall should also provide the space for the guests and delegates to interact and relax. The hotel should also have sufficient resource and space at their restaurant for catering the guests and delegates for lunch and dinner. Along with that, they should also have sufficient space for any other collaborative events. Medium Sized Conference In any medium sized conference, the numbers of guests are around 600-1500 along with 50 exhibitors. Such conferences are generally 3 days long with the opening ceremony and around six to eight concurrent sessions on every day. Other than that, there should be sufficient space for networking activities. Such conferences have different special requirements from the requirements of small conferences. In these kinds of conferences, the location choice is very much significant along with the availability of the venue. The venue is a major factor here as this may increase the number of participants. As in such conferences, the delegates generally fund for their own selves, the venue location matter a lot (Van and Getz 2016). As there will be a plenary session in the conference, the delegates will require a big conference hall where they will listen to the speakers. Therefore a theater should set up where this purpose can be served. The venue should be selected according to these basic requ irements of the conference. Due to these purposes, the exhibition and conference halls should have wide space. As stated by Andersson, Getz. and Mykletun (2014) the value spend by the exhibitor should also be checked before booking the venue. However, it has been seen that, generally these kinds of medium conferences require minimum of $25000-$30000 to be spend for the venue. As, there will be minimum of 50 exhibitors, there should also be a hall of around 2000 square meters other than the conference hall, meeting room and the space where the guests will interact with each other. This will increase the chances of networking for the delegates. There should also be separate rooms available where the sessions will take place. For this purpose, there should be five to seven extra banquet rooms which will have the capacity of approximately 200 delegates. Other than that, there should also be an extra room for the operations of the Event Management Company. This room should be adjacent to the conference room and there should be adequate provision of operating all the rooms form that particular room. Even though the primary operational requirements are similar to the requirements of the small conference such as the chairs, tables, microphones and other necessary decorations, however the resources should be more than the small conference. Due to the size of the conference, there should always be one or more representatives from the Event management Company who will coordinate among the necessary authorities such as the hotel management, exhibitors and the delegates (Masterman 2014). The representatives will also take care of the marketing of the conference and they will ensure that there is a proper communication and signage among the conference management team and the exhibitors. In this situation, the venue of the hotel will act to be very significant, as more exhibitors will be interested depending on the place of the conference. Along with that, there should be pr oper data connectivity within the conference premises for both the exhibitors and the delegates. There should also be an extended food and beverages range for the guests. The hotel should have sufficient resources so that there is no issue with the delegates (Holmes, Nichols and Ralston 2017). They should have adequate number of employees to ensure that the plans are executing at right time. Other than that, there should be the Public liability insurance which should be allotted to the conference venue beforehand. Major International Conference A 5 day long major International conference will include, a plenary, concurrent sessions along with the networking activities on every day, a gala dinner and award ceremony. The numbers of guests for this conference should be 3500-5000 along with 400 exhibitors. Ideally the space should be big enough to support all the necessary requirements for the accommodation of the guests, the transport requirements, along with the social networking activities, leisure programs to other locations (Bladen and Kennel 2014). This will increase the numbers of participation of the exhibitors and other delegates. The conference room should be sufficient enough to host a plenary session with 5000 guests. The dining should also accommodate all the guests which will require around 500 tables. The main conference room should have a dance floor and a podium or stage for award ceremony. The exhibition rooms should also offer around 20000 square meters so that each exhibitor gets at least 50 square meter spa ce. The other operational requirements are approximately similar to the small and medium sized conferences, although it should come in big scale (Mackellar 2014). However, the international conference may require a local travel and tourism company to take care of the destination management. This company will have experts, who will take care of the necessary information such as local accommodation, transport coordination, local entertainment, visa, domestic tour and the other entertainment for the gala dinner and the award ceremony. They will also ensure the leisure social programs for the delegates and the guests. There should also be a technology team who will make sure that there are social networking activities involving the social media sites. Conclusion In conclusion, it can be said that, regardless of the size of the conference, there should be adequate amount of resource which will cater the delegates. Other than the basic requirements, there are always some operational and spatial needs which are very significant for the guests. This study has shown all the basic needs along with these requirements. References Andersen, S.S., Hanstad, D.V. and Plejdrup-Skillestad, K., 2015. The Role of Test Events in Major Sporting Events.Event Management,19(2), pp.261-273. Andersson, T.D., Getz, D. and Mykletun, R.J. eds., 2014.Festival and event management in Nordic countries. Routledge. Bladen, C. and Kennell, J., 2014. Educating the 21st century event management graduate: Pedagogy, practice, professionalism, and professionalization.Event Management,18(1), pp.5-14. Holmes, K., Nichols, G.S. and Ralston, R., 2017. It's a once-in-a-lifetime experience and opportunity-deal with it!Volunteer perceptions of the management of the volunteer experience at the London 2012 Olympic Games.Event Management. Jones, M., 2014.Sustainable event management: A practical guide. Routledge. Mackellar, J., 2014. Surfing the Fringe: An Examination of Event Tourism Strategies of the Bleach FestivalCoolangatta Queensland.Event Management,18(4), pp.447-455. Masterman, G., 2014.Strategic sports event management. Routledge. Miyamoto, Y., Kaysser, W.A., Rabin, B.H., Kawasaki, A. and Ford, R.G. eds., 2013.Functionally graded materials: design, processing and applications(Vol. 5). Springer Science Business Media. Pahl, G. and Beitz, W., 2013.Engineering design: a systematic approach. Springer Science Business Media. Rogers, T 2013, Conferences and conventions: a global industry, 3rd edn., Routledge, New York. Testa, M.R. and Metter, M., 2017. Assessing Economic Impact as a Means for Event Efficacy: A Proposed Model and Case Study.Event Management,21(1), pp.61-70. Van Niekerk, M. and Getz, D., 2016. The Identification and Differentiation of Festival Stakeholders.Event Management,20(3), pp.419-431.